Abortion In Natural Moral Law And Utilitarian Ethics Philosophy Essay

Abortion In Natural Moral Law And Utilitarian Ethics Philosophy Essay The current ethical issue of abortion is a broad and complex ethical issue which can be approached from many moral and ethical directions. Two such directions can be the deontological Natural Moral Law and the teleological or consequentialist Utilitarian ethics. Abortion, from the Latin aborior, to pass away, is an induced termination of a pregnancy. Historically, as today, an abortion is the focal point of much controversy. The laws governing abortion have changed considerably in the last fifty years to accommodate abortion as an option for a pregnant woman. A landmark US case giving a mother right to wilful abortion occurred in 1973 set in motion by a woman called Jane Roe in Dallas, Texas. Roe wished to terminate her pregnancy, but in Texas at the time, only victims of rape or incest could procure a legal abortion. The case reached the Supreme Court where the judges ruled that abortion was a constitutional right to women, overturning laws in every state which denied abortion to women through medically qualified doctors. Abortion is now legally allowed in many western countries for women. Since the legality of abortions came into effect, much debate has occurred from opposite so called pro-choice and pro-life groups, gathering many argumen ts from both deontological and teleological ethics. Utilitarianism  is the idea that the  moral worth  of an action is determined solely by its contribution to overall  utility: that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed among all people.  [1]   Utilitarianism places no emphasis on whether an action is right or wrong, right is only so once the pleasure has been decided to outweigh the pain in the circumstances resulting from the decision. Pleasure, in early Utilitarian thinking, was only concerned with the physical, e.g. being well fed. John Stuart Mill later argued that pleasure was also quantifiable in intellectual and spiritual terms. These higher pleasures he argued outweighed the lower pleasures. Mill proposed, for example being well fed, at the expense of a mans spirituality was a lesser pleasure, and in effect, not as right as a spiritually enlightened man who was hungry. The hungry man experiences higher pleasure, as spiritual enlightenment lasts significantly longer than the feeling of being well fed. Consequentialist Utilitarians would argue that abortion is an entirely neutral act. The consequences resulting from the abortion determine the rightness. A specific system of measuring the pleasure against pain can be utilised called Hedonic Calculus. Hedonic Calculus first proposed by Jeremy Bentham, measures pleasure/pain through eight categories: Certainty Duration Extent   Intensity   Remoteness   Richness Purity  [2]   This calculus subjectively determines if the pain outweighs the pleasure in a scenario of a potential abortion. A mother may need an abortion to save her own life if it is in peril due to her pregnancy, she cannot afford to leave her children motherless. This scenario, shown through Hedonic Calculus allows abortion to be the right choice as 1. There is a high certainty the mother will die, 2. The duration of mourning for the family would be very long as would the duration of risk to her other children, 3. The pain and suffering for her surviving family would be very great and so on. A different scenario in which the mother seeks an abortion so she can go on a holiday would be morally wrong as from categories: 2. the pleasure of a child will last years compared to that of a comparatively short holiday, 4. The intensity of the pleasure of a child is much greater and higher significance as it is emotional and spiritual than a physical and emotional holiday. The taking of a life can be justified in Utilitarianism as there are no standing rules of what is right or wrong for a general scenario, i.e. abortion. Every circumstance is different and warrants a separate evaluation to determine the correct action. Natural law is a branch of deontological ethics, deon meaning duty in Latin. Natural law  or the  law of nature  is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by  nature  and that therefore has validity everywhere.  [3]  These laws, created by God, are discernible to all peoples and are thought of as moral absolutes, natural moral law theory implies that we  discover  morality we do not  invent  it,  (J.P. Moreland, What Is Natural Moral Law). It is mans duty to be rational, and as God is rational too, it is rational that humans must love God. Thomas Aquinas, a figurehead for natural moral law proposed five primary precepts and other secondary precepts. The primary precepts proposed where: The continuation of the species through procreation The education of children The desire to live in society The worship of God The preservation of the self These precepts are considered in natural moral law to be the most basic aspirations of all humans. Aquinas believed that all humans wished to do good and follow the precepts but through ignorance to the Natural Moral Law, some could do wrong. Aquinas argued that good ethical decisions could be arrived at by reason alone. Humans have the power of deducing what is good and what is wrong through application of their conscience. Natural Law, being deontological, imposes inalienable rules that cannot be broken. Natural Law can be seen as order provided by nature which exists for a purpose. A common criticism of Utilitarianism would be the difficulty of its real world application. The theory of a decision may be morally sound, but the limitless unexpected permutations prevent proper ethical conduct from occurring once theory is put to practice. The Tribunal of the Holy Office, a catholic authority was once queried on the 4th of May, 1898 as to whether a foetus was allowed to be removed from its womb before natural course did so. The tribunal resolved that there was no exception to natural birth, even inducing premature labour with the intention of saving the babys life. However, if life saving surgery were to be performed on the mother, which would have consequences on the growing foetus, it should not be maintained that the fetal(sic)  life  is thereby directly attacked. The  evil  is not made a means to obtain the  good  effect; for this would be to do  evil  that  good  might come of it.  [4]   This fulfils the Natural Law requirement of the act of being good as separate from the concept of doing good. To be morally correct, one must not embark on a course of action which is right purely to obtain an evil or vain end. The right must be to cause neutral or correct consequences. This certainty of rules and moral action allows the system of Natural Law to be an unquestionable authority if placed alongside Utilitarian ethics which are in permanent flux. The Catholic Church supports the notion of ensoulment, where at conception a foetus is given a soul by God. A soul is viewed as a separate form to the physical body, but is linked inextricably until death. The act of abortion goes against the first precept of Natural Law, denying the continuation of the species through abortion. Even if that abortion would lead to saving a life, the authority to kill a foetus does not rest in humans hands. It is inhumane to end the life of a baby, as natural law theory holds;  one may never directly intend to kill an innocent human being  [5]  . After conception, Natural Law argues that the foetus is human so is equal in right to life as its mother. There is no greater worth placed on the mother living than the child as both are considered equal. Utilitarianism would argue against the inflexibility of the rules of Natural Law regarding to the preservation of a childs life. Utilitarians would argue that greater suffering may be caused by the preservation of a foetus life. The mother of the child may be a chronic drug addict, and the chances of the baby growing up disadvantaged are high. It could be argued that the mother may not be fit to care for a child and the child would suffer a hard life, through mal-parenting and possible separation from the mother in later years. A possible course of action would be a wilful abortion by the mother to prevent suffering of a child. The rigidity of Natural Law allows no exceptions to be made, even if the pleasure resulting from an abortion vastly outweighs the pain. This rigidity of laws could cause unnecessary harm to many people. Correct decision making can stem from both deontological and consequentialist ethics. While Natural Moral Law argues that the laws of nature are absolute, Utilitarianism argues that no laws constantly serve the greatest good, and only through flexibility can good be achieved. The primary precepts of Natural Law indicate clearly that abortion is wrong so far as the taking of an innocent life, and interrupting the natural result of procreation. Utilitarianism states that abortion, like all actions is an entirely neutral act until the consequences are evaluated. Both ethical systems allow an opportunity for an individual to formulate an understanding of, and ethically right decision on abortion.

Education reforms Essay

The problems experienced in the K-12 level of education in U. S. A today are a serious threat to the health of the economy and the future prosperity of society in general. The quality of education is deteriorating though the government has increased funding by 44 percent. â€Å"A rising tide of mediocrity† as reported by the federal commission was the key factor that causes the K-12 education to deteriorate (Kurt 2003). There are no parental choice programs that give them the power to make decisions on how the school should be run. The children are assigned to schools that are nearer to their place of residence and this is based on zoning rules. Another problem is that public schools are performing below the standard and they are not held accountable for their performance. â€Å"The schools are lacking incentive to improve quality or take control of the costs for they are protected by the education act of the government. † (The Washington Post 2008 April 3) The private and religious schools are performing well as opposed to the public schools and this has a negative significance to the students who are enrolled in public schools. Due to the problems discussed above then the government must address the bureaucratic structure reform and especially the public education. For the discussed problems I would advocate for empowering of parents so that they will ensure that students are served better than the administration. They will also be allowed to transfer their children from the schools that are not performing and consequently this will compel the school to improve their quality. The government should ensure that public school are performing and more so come up with strategies that will enable them to perform. The reform will make the schools to be more resourceful with their finances and follow the curriculum accordingly. In his recent public speech, Senator McCain noted that â€Å"markets have losers and winners and United States of America cannot afford any losers in a game of educational roulette. † (The New York Times 2008 July 14). The choice of programs will allow parents to take their children to schools within or outside the districts depending on the performance. There should be also introduction of charter schools which are publicly funded but managed by private officers. â€Å"The bureaucratic systems that prevent funds from reaching the teaching fraternity should be abolished. † (William B. 2007) The two presidential candidates have realized that the deterioration of America’s educational system will be a major concern as for the voters. They have therefore come up with various proposals to reform K-12 education once they get into power. Senator Barrack Obama will establish national standards by ensuring that national tests are done on a voluntary basis. He also promises to empower parents to improve the educational quality and academic achievement. On the other hand, Senator McCain proposed that parents will be allowed to use the proceeds to reform K-12 education as well as pay for their children’s university fees. This is an idea that was rejected by President Clinton but McCain wants to reintroduce the bill. In The New York Times dated 14th July 2008, â€Å"there was an agreement by school officials that vouchers foster competition and thereby force public schools to improve. † Also in The Washington Post dated 3rd April 2008 it was noted that â€Å"new choices in education have sent a powerful message to schools and prompt some of them to acknowledge a threat of competition. † To summarize, it is clear that public schools are providing substandard education to the students. It is because of this reason that there is need to address the bureaucratic structure of schools that does not put the interests of the learners at heart. References Greenwood C. (2008 April 3) K-12 education reforms. The Washington Post. Kurt Finsterbusch (2003) Annual Editions: Social Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education William George Bruce (2007)The American School Board Journal Michigan: National School Boards Association A Smith,(2008 July 14) Bureaucratic System of Education. The New York Times.

Juvenile Delinquency Essay - 1827 Words

Juvenile Delinquency There is no doubt that various experts can give us many theories as to the causes of juvenile delinquency, including ones economic background, substance abuse, delinquent peer groups, repeated exposure to violence, increased availability of firearms and media violence. However, I feel that the number one cause of juvenile delinquency is the breakdown of families, including lack of parental control over children. It is ironic in America, today, one must have a drivers license to operate a vehicle, a permit to own a gun and even a license to own a dog, but one does not have to have training or a license in order to become a parent. Without specialized educational programs in child development and parenting, many of†¦show more content†¦Experts agree they are generally three parenting styles that reportedly escalate these conflicts. The authoritarian parent tends to emphasize rules and very harsh consequences. There is little room for discussion or negotiation. The indulgent parent tends to spoil the child and expects little or no responsibility at home, choosing instead to clean up after the child both at home and in his social misbehavior. The indifferent parent is so preoccupied with his/her own life and activities that little time and energy is given to either involvement or appropriate structure. The type of parenting that does work is simply called authoritative parenting. This type of parent assumes a role of authority in the childs life, but the rules and structure are sensible and flexible to accommodate the childs growth toward adolescence and young adulthood. The parents intelligent explanations of the rules plus reasonable enforcement help to maintain a steady reduction of control as the child matures. Studies have been made to determine the causes of juvenile delinquency. Many of these studies have focused on family relationships. In one study, comparing delinquent and non-delinquent youths showed that over ninety percent of the delinquents had unhappy home lives and felt discontented with their life circumstances. Only thirteen percent of the non-delinquentShow MoreRelatedJuvenile Delinquency1154 Words   |  5 PagesDiscussion In common parlance, there is an understanding of juvenile delinquency as meaning adolescents breaking the law or participating in mischievous behavior. Defining juveniles as being under the age of 18 years is the general rule of thumb because, in the current legal system, upon reaching this age individuals can be tried as adults, serve in the military, and, in some states, consume alcohol. (Reckless, 1972) One may ask why juvenile delinquency is viewed as a separate construct from adult deviantRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency2109 Words   |  9 PagesJuvenile Delinquency 1 Juvenile Delinquency: Features, Causes and Solutions Shen Cheng Class: 110 Teacher: Stephanie February 29, 2012 Juvenile Delinquency 2 Outline I. Introduction Thesis statement: Nowadays, there is no denying that Juvenile Delinquency has become one of the hottest social issues. The features, causes, and solutions of Juvenile Delinquency will be discussed about in this research. II. The features of Juvenile Delinquency A. The average age of juveniles who commitRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency2343 Words   |  10 PagesOpener: B. Thesis statement: This term paper explores how family issues attribute to juvenile delinquency and how to overcome it. II. First and foremost, an unstable family structure is one of the contributing factors to juvenile delinquency. A. Single-parent household vs. two-parent household B. Child maltreatment 1. emotional neglect 2. physical abuse III. Secondly, studies have shown that juvenile delinquency is conclusively related to the family environment. A. Family cohesion B. Increasing numberRead MoreJuvenile Crime And Juvenile Delinquency1322 Words   |  6 PagesVersion). Juvenile crime, in law, term denoting various offense committed by children or youth under the age of 18. U.S. official crime reported that in the mid-1900’s â€Å"about one-fifth of all persons arrested for crimes were under the age of 18† (Funk Wagnalls, 2014). Such acts are sometimes referred to as juvenile delinquency (Funk Wagnalls, 2014. Offering constructive programs reduces juvenile delinquency and reduces recidivism. â€Å"From the beginning, the principal consideration of the juvenile courtsRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency : Adult Delinquency2861 Words   |  12 PagesAlexis Kelly SOC 333 William Franks Spring 2015 Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Programs What is juvenile delinquency? Juvenile delinquency relates to minors who commit law violations. Instead of adults commiting â€Å"crimes’, juveniles are considered to commit â€Å"delinquent acts†. Society sees juvenile delinquents as immature and in need of guidance, which is different to adults, who are seen to be responsible for their crimes. Juvenile delinquency can occur in any community, neighborhood, and schoolsRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency2264 Words   |  10 PagesJuvenile Delinquency is the participation of illegal behavior by a minor who falls under a statutory age limit. A delinquent is a minor who commits a crime or a status offense. A status offense is conduct that is illegal only because the child is under age i.e. smoking cigarettes (Senna 10, 20). The cases of Eric Smith, Lionel Tate, and an unidentified NJ child are similar only because, they are guilty of killing another child, but the Criminal Justice System treated and punished them very different lyRead MoreJuvenile Crime And Juvenile Delinquency1458 Words   |  6 PagesDay in and day out residents and visitors to the Boston area are affected by juvenile crime and delinquency. Though the crime rates in MA and across the nation are on a steady decline, these juvenile crimes are still considered a serious matter that needs attention. It is thought that juvenile offenders do not cope as well with the criminal justice system as well as adults may be able to and therefore there needs to be a focus on how the system can better aid in the rehabilitation of these youthfulRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency Essay1646 Words   |  7 PagesA juvenile delinquent offense is an act committed by a juvenile for which an adult would be tried at a criminal court. New statistics give an alarming picture: juvenile delinquency is higher as never before. According to the census bureau, in 2008 there were 1,653,000 recorded delinquent offenses in the United States. This is a 23.6% increase from 1990 when 1,337,000 delinquent offenses occurred. Today, a lot of people demand lowering the age of criminal responsibility and draconian penalties (JensonRead MoreThe And Prevention Of Juvenile Delinquency970 Words   |  4 PagesJuveniles in the justice system is an issue relevant not only to people in the criminal justice system but to society in general. There have been a number of studies done that link serious behavior problems in children to adult criminal conduct. In more recent years, there has been more research done regarding the causes and prevention of juvenile delinquency. The Department of Juvenile Justice lists 3 broad categories with many subcategories to help us understand what contributes to juvenile delinquencyRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency Is A Problem1508 Words   |  7 PagesJuvenile Delinquency When looking into the history of United States and elsewhere juvenile delinquency is a problem and has been one for over a century. Like other systems in place, the system involving juvenile delinquents has gone through many stages. In the case of the juvenile delinquency, it has gone through four stages, with us presently in the fourth. The causes behind juvenile delinquency are still unknown even today. Some blame it on the current culture, the over-exposure to violence

Qualifications Market Essay Online For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3578 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Education Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Linear programmes of learning are where students gain their qualification largely through exams at the end of their study rather than through a series of modules. This means that, unlike a modular system, separate elements cannot be retaken to gain a higher qualification if necessary. This has been interpreted in terms of stretch and challenge within teaching and learning, in which higher order learning is developed within the existing framework of the subject. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Qualifications Market Essay Online For Free" essay for you Create order There is concern that this stretch and challenge within the delivery of teaching material may not be reflected in the assessments, and the fact that there are different organisations awarding qualifications may affect the extent to which this increased challenge for more able students can be achieved in practice. This concern rests largely on the possibility that the greater demands placed on students may result in greater variation in how these may be assessed and delivered for all students owing to the differences in exam boards syllabuses. This potentially opens up greater variation in the qualifications market. There are differences between subjects in the extent to which such changes make the linear A-levels more challenging. In Geography, there is a perception that the removal of the coursework element of the learning experience makes the subject less challenging and that this reduces extent to which the essential fieldwork skills are taught. In GCSE, it has been argued that there is an increased focus on teaching and learning for the demands of the examination, and an increase in content leads to a loss of depth of study in some subjects such as English. Linear assessment was, however, seen as a way in which deeper and longer-lasting learning may be developed, particularly when related to subject-specific skills. The decoupling of AS levels means that AS results may not count towards an A level as they do at present. This means that AS level courses may be changed to be taught alongside the first year of A-levels, rather than contributing to the actual A-level course. This means that there is a need to provide separate syllabuses for the AS courses when compared to the A-level course, and there may be limited benefit to having AS and A-levels in the same subject. This increases the burden of developing different syllabuses for the same subject upon the qualifications, which means the qualifications market may respond through a decreased number of s ubjects being provided by the type of qualification bodies. However, this means that there is still an opportunity for students to undertake a range of subjects, permitting a balanced curriculum to be developed. Several subjects have thus been removed from GCSE, AS and A-level and the content has been included in other subjects. It is currently too early to state whether the changes in the qualifications will substantively affect the makeup of the qualifications market, but the current research indicate that confidence in the validity of these qualifications is not as high as it might be. It is important to review the effect that these changes will have when the first qualifications are presented in 2016. Question 2: How are awarding bodies responding to the rise in the number of schools choosing PreUs, IGCSEs and IB qualifications over GCSEs and A-levels? A drawback with the current A-level and GCSE format is that it is elective, which can then lead to narrow programmes of study after the age of 16. There are also significant differences between the vocational and academic curriculum. Attempts to challenge this occurred in the 2000s with the provision of broader uptake of A-level programmes, where it was argued that students would take up to five subjects in their first year of study. Applied GCSEs were introduced in 2002, but rather than this being used to broaden individual students work, these changes were more frequently used to create an alternative curriculum for those who were seen as unable to follow a full GCSE programme. Not all alternative qualifications have shown an increased uptake: the number of schools opting for the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP) peaked at about 230 schools in 2010 but has since declined, despite the fact that this is not matched by a decline in other countries. University reco gnition of IBDP programmes has been argued to prove a significant problem with its provision, with the fact that the recognition of A-levels has resulted in a decline. The formation of the National Baccalaureate has been one response to the increased focus on these awarding mechanisms. This responds to the advantages that other qualifications have over traditional UK qualifications by providing an award that may be more internationally recognised and includes broader aspects to its format. For example, it can include personal development programmes and an extended project, as well as extending the study of Maths and English to 18 years. This might measure wider learning, and allow personal achievements alongside traditional subjects to be recognised. However, there is an extent to which this challenges some of the wider advantages of the existing qualification system. The A-level system is considered relatively resilient because it has a close alignment with the single-honour system at university. Subject broadening would be argued to dilute subject content. The reforms in 2016 represent perhaps an approach to the broadening of content by ensuring that the benefits of A-levels are capitalised upon, rather than attempts to broaden their content, allowing for students to be better prepared for university. The adoption of the Extended Project Qualification or of the Critical Thinking module represents one way in which examination bodies have responded to these challenges. However, given the experience of modular A-levels, which tended to produce a broader education with limited depth, the focus seems to be upon ensuring that the benefits of A-levels are not diluted, while continuing to provide a choice of modules through AS levels in order to provide the benefits of a rigorous education. Many schools migrating to IGCSEs have done so because of changes in the GCSE examinations in 2009. For example, these placed greater emphasis upon completing coursework in controlled conditions, which imposes a burden upon the schools, and many schools believed that IGCSEs presented a more rigorous assessment. Changes to the rigour of exams in the system of 2016 can be seen as a response to this perception. Question 3: What has been the impact on the qualifications market of the Governments decision to exclude IGCSEs from league tables? The impact of the governments decision to exclude IGCSEs from league tables has been problematic as the result is to condemn well-performing schools to the bottom of the league table. Few would argue that schools such as Westminster, Eton College or Harrow are poor-performing schools, but the result has been to show that their pupils did not reach the benchmark of A* to C grades. This undermines the impact of league tables and makes them a lower indication of the quality of an institution. It is also unlikely to encourage such schools to return to the state-approved national qualification market. This then makes the extent to which the league tables can be trusted questionable. This also potentially gives some of the more prominent independent schools an advantage because the reputation of many of the most famous schools is given precedence over the league tables, and the fact that the league tables no longer reflect this difference is well known. For the less well-known independen t schools, this may be an advantage in one sense because a mediocre placing will not be noted by the changes in the league tables, but this may also mean that some observers will interpret their position as actually reflecting their true place. The qualifications market is thus undermined by the lack of clarity in comparable results. Given that State schools do not follow IGCSEs, the result is to accentuate the differences between state and independent schools. This undermines the extent to which parents may compare the performances of different schools according to the league tables. The fact that a number of independent schools continue to support IGCSEs, including the most high-performing schools in the country, means that unless there is a large-scale abandonment of the IGCSE programme, then there will continue to be a two-tier system of results, and schools tend not to move at whim, and particularly if they are not substantively suffering from the impact of the change. This may mean that alternative publications will need to be created that compare the results of IGCSEs with the results of the GCSE league tables, and essentially re-insert these schools into the system. The removal of IGCSEs from the league tables has essentially backfired in this case because it has not devalued the IGCSE, nor drawn attention to the GCSE as a more rigorous form of study. Indeed, the reason that is commonly given for independent schools that follow IGCSEs is the greater choice it gives them, and the more rigorous approach it offers to learning. This means that the qualifications market takes note of these differences and there are thus limited effects that can take place as a result of this change. This would not be the case were it not for the fact that some of the most prominent supporters of IGCSE are well-known to be excellent schools, and therefore the league tables make it very difficult to distinguish between a lesser-known but well-performing school and a poo rly performing school. Either the schools should be excluded altogether or a separate table should be provided for this category. Question 4: What steps can be taken to overcome the challenges standing in the way of new providers entering the exams market, such as the perceived quality of exam boards, identified by Ofqual? Schools tend to choose the exam board largely on the perceived quality of the syllabus provided by the exam board, rather than the price. The decision to select an exam board is usually made by the head teacher of a subject who is usually not involved in the financial planning of the school. Schools are less likely to switch based on price without ascertaining that the quality of the exam board is high enough, and in order to do this a history of the examination board provision is required. The barriers to entry are high because of the non-negligible fixed sunk costs: firstly, products need to be adapted to specifications and regulatory compliance that is relatively high. Secondly, there would need to be an extensive investment in reputation in order to encourage the naturally-risk-averse schools to choose the exam board. There are also high costs associated with the possibility that something may go wrong. This means that competition between exam boards is periodic, and thus ta kes place at breaking points in the market, such as where there is a change in specification, or where a serious error by one exam board causes school to choose another. There are some dangers in allowing competition on quality rather than price, as should syllabuses be offered that focus on helping students to pass, a scenario known as the race to the bottom may develop. Ofquals intervention in the market would reduce the risk that this poses. There is no likelihood that there would be competition based on price in the near future, although the fact that most schools believe that the existing scenario offers reasonable value for money may suggest that examination boards will not wish to increase prices significantly. The most likely outcome is that there may be competition created on the variety provided by the syllabus, and therefore there may be room for alternatives that are based upon the interests and desires of different heads of department. Furthermore, if the market rema ins significantly regulated, then this may facilitate market sharing between boards and reduce the possibility of new entrants into the exam market, and this would also reduce the likelihood of new entrants. However, differentiation in the provision of exam boards will provide the opportunity for new entrants to attract schools. This would be less likely to happen if the subject content were closely regulated as syllabuses would need to be relatively similar between examination boards. As such, limited steps may be taken to overcome the entrance of new examination boards to the qualification markets while the provision of syllabuses remains regulated. The startup costs for a new board would appear to be too costly; the fact that schools rarely change syllabus, and the fact that they judge exam boards on the quality of the service provision relating to their previous performance in the field, may undermine this possibility. Allowing greater variation in the type of syllabus provid ed would seem the only way in which more diversity in products may be provided, and this would seem to be the most likely way in which the market may be developed. Question 5: Would introducing a single awarding body per qualification, as suggested by the Government, address concerns that competition is affecting the quality of exams? What other options should be considered? There are a number of advantages to the use of a variety of exam boards. The choice that this gives the schools in terms of the syllabus used is a significant benefit. The fact that this spreads the risk between different boards is also an advantage for any problems that may arise. The existence of a close regulation and monitoring between different boards allows there to be a close parity between awarding bodies, and this helps allow the schools to have choice in the type of exams they undertake, while still allowing for there to be variation and choice in how they do so. Each exam board also holds an incentive to raise the quality of the service they provide because a failure to do so results in a loss of business. The problem with regulation concerning the syllabus is that to an extent this disrupts the extent to which competition may be seen between exam boards. It can be seen as an inefficient method, given the similarities across subjects offered between different exam boa rds. For example, while a wide range of set texts are mandated by the government, there are limited possibilities for qualifications to alter their delivery. This means that there is an extent to which the provision of different qualifications can involve essentially providing the same qualification across different exam boards without affecting the product provided. The result is for exam boards to compete on style, and it is questionable as to how much difference in content may be provided. Despite this, the existing model is preferred and enjoyed by schools that believe that choice is provided to a sufficient extent. In particular, there is the extent to which schools may shift examination board should there be a real or perceived problem with the marking system. Likewise, the differences in how the syllabus is provided and the type of examinations offered, while being of the same standard, may offer alternatives that correspond more closely to the schools own preferences. Concerns that there may be competition that affects the quality of exams may be challenged to an extent. Moderation may undermine the extent to which exams are different between examination boards. Competition is largely on the provision of syllabus content and quality and does not appear to function on the basis of examination quality. Furthermore, there seems to be minimal evidence that schools adopt the examination board simply on the basis of the simplicity of examinations or to better their chances. Among other choices that might be considered is for exams to be marked centrally in order to address concerns over the possibility that there may be variation. However, this would restrict the individual exam boards choice to move board should they dispute a marking method or result. Secondly, the marking schemes between examination boards may be externally moderated and set in order to provide a comparable standard between boards. However, a case may be made for some core subjec ts to be centralised, as in some areas, such as Mathematics and English, there is limited choice between the subjects set between boards, and some of the syllabuses are sufficiently similar for there to be a strong imperative towards a central board. This argument may not be so persuasive in other subjects because there is less centralisation. Question 6: What impact has the new process for endorsing learning resources introduced last year had on the public confidence in endorsement arrangements for learning materials? The concerns that affected the existing system for the endorsement of learning resources include a range of issues. In particular, there is concern regarding the extent to which the existing resources written by examiners may compromise the predictability and confidentiality of assessments.. Therefore, the new method is intended to support the learning and teaching of a specific qualification without impinging negatively upon the standards of the qualification. Awarding organisations must publish the criteria they use in order to manage the risks of the qualification standards. This may mean that any real or perceived conflicts of interest are being managed effectively. In any case, students reliance upon examiner-authored resources may prove restrictive, and where textbooks are associated with these authors, schools are more likely to buy such textbooks. The current ruling does not exclude those who write such textbooks and those who publish them. Senior examiners may still pub lish such textbooks, and therefore the endorsement regulations have not reduced this. The Advisory Committee on Mathematics Education, for example, argues that the new regulations do not go far enough, and that examiner-authored textbooks continue to be a problem in Mathematics in particular. To an extent, this comment can be supported: the limitations to the reform are that it does not stop endorsements being affixed to the textbook or publication, but simply makes the procedure for doing so more transparent. Therefore, examiners may still publish such textbooks, and such textbooks may even identify the book as being written by the examiner, even if the texts are not endorsed by the examination board. Even if such endorsement does not take place, then it would be relatively simple for the schools to identify the examiner as the author of the textbooks. Likewise, the publication of transparent criteria by the examination board does not necessarily restrict the extent to which end orsement can take place, but simply offers information on the procedure used to make such decisions. Given that the new policy is relatively recent, there has been limited response to its effect in practical terms. It takes a certain period before the uses of textbooks endorsed under the new scheme for the purposes of a specific examination can be recorded. Furthermore, for many schools, the aim is to prepare their students for examination as closely as possible, and thus they will likely continue to purchase textbooks authored by those who work closely with the regulatory system. Public opposition to the system has tended to focus on this factor, and given that the changes to the regulatory system do not do enough to address this issue, it is unlikely that public opinion will be substantively mollified by the changes. There are thus two issues present: the question of how far texts written by those closely involved in the examination process should be used for preparation, and t he reasons used by examination boards to endorse learning materials. The changes in the endorsement procedures only affect the latter of these issues, whereas public opinion is largely concerned with the former. 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